Far Away From Home

Mexica cavalryman and Spanish footsoldier, Pensacola Bay, Florida, August 1559

Tristán de Luna y Arellano (1510~1573) was a Spanish conquistador who was dispatched to colonize Florida in 1559. In August, he established the first substantial European settlement in the continental United States, at modern-day Pensacola.

Luna's fleet consisted of eleven ships and over 1,500 soldiers and settlers, the majority of whom were indigenous Nahua people from Central Mexico. Some of these settlers were the indigenous population of Mexico City (natives still called this city as 'Tenochtitlan'), in other words, Mexica. They were among the Mexica warriors who had conquered the furthest land from their home.

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Contrary to normal belief, the Mesoamerican army and military culture largely survived after the conquest. Even the famous Mexica army of Tenochtitlan continued to operate after the Empire's fall. When invading Guatemala (1523-1527), Pedro Alvarado led thousands of indigenous armies. The army was primarily made up of Mexica and Tlaxcalteca peoples. Ironically, the Tlaxcalteca, who were instrumental in overthrowing the Aztec Empire, were fighting alongside Mexica. It was in 1531 (ten years after the fall of Tenochtitlan) that the Mexica army abolished the traditional military ranks like tequihua, cuachic, and otomi. The army itself was still intact.

Traditional military paraphernalia was also around for a long time. Traditional shields, armor, and banners were still used until at least the 1580s. Although it was assumed that the Spanish sword quickly replaced the traditional obsidian sword (macuahuitl), obsidian weapons continued to be used long after the conquest. Initially, the Spanish viceroy restricted the use of steel swords to a few authorized indigenous nobles. Even after these restrictions were lifted, steel weapons were still expensive. As a result, the indigenous people, who made up the majority of the army, continued to use obsidian weapons. Macuahuitl were in use as late as the early 17th century, and by the time these obsidian weapons vanished, steel swords also become obsolete due to the development of firearms.

Of course, indigenous peoples did adopt Spanish clothing, but mostly in conjunction with traditional clothing. By the 1540s, the majority of indigenous men were dressed in Spanish-style pants and shirts. They did, however, wear a traditional tilmatli (cloak) over their shirt. Some indigenous nobles preferred to dress in Spanish style to demonstrate their status, while others went into battle in traditional paraphernalia.

I drew the indigenous people in Spanish style clothing in this drawing. Codex Osuna depicts Mexica footsoldiers and cavalryman during Tristan de Luna's expedition to Florida. They are dressed in a complete Spanish style: feathered toque hat, red doublet with ruffled collar, round and puffy trouses, hose (stockings), and boots. The cavalryman is holding a flag with an eagle on top of a prickly pear cactus, representing the mythical founding of Tenochtitlan in 1325. Because of the size of the drawing, the flag is vaguely depicted. So I reconstructed it using contemporaneous depictions of a founding myth, such as Diego Durán's manuscripts and Codex Tovar.

"(...) and all around the cactus you will see the innumerable green, blue, red, yellow, and white feathers from the splendid birds on which the eagle feeds. The place where you will find the eagle on the cactus I now name Tenochtitlan'. - Diego Durán, "History of the Indies of New Spain" (1581)

This cultural exchange, however, was not one-sided. The indigenous military paraphernalia was sometimes adopted by Spanish conquistadores. The most well-known example is ichcahuipilli, the native quilted cotton armor. Contrary to the popular image of a metal-clad conquistadores, many soldiers could not afford a full set of steel armor. Even if one had full steel armor, the hot and humid climate made it unbearable to wear it all the time.

In addition, the stockings and shoes were easily torn in Mesoamerica's rough terrain, so many Spanish soldiers abandoned stockings and wore indigenous cactli (sandals). It was the same with the shields. Because many soldiers used a leather or wooden adarga shield rather than a metal shield, they were relatively easy to damage during a long campaign. Then they had no choice but to use the indigenous chimalli shield.

A particularly intriguing example can be found in Lienzo de Quauhquechollan. The bearded Spaniards are wearing a quetzalpatzactli back banner, chimalli shield, and cactli sandal. Given that the majority of the army was made up of indigenous people, Spaniards had to adopt their military insignia in order to facilitate communicate with them.

Sources

· Lienzo de Quauhquechollan (1530s)

· Codex Mendoza (1542)

· Codex Osuna (1565)

· Codex Tlatelolco (1565)

· Diego Durán, "Book of the Gods and Rites" (1576)

· Diego Durán, "History of the Indies of New Spain" (1581)

· Juan de Tovar, "Codex Tovar" (1588)

· Terence Wise, "The Conquistadores" (1980)

· Charles Hudson, Marvin T. Smith et al. 'The Tristán de Luna Expedition, 1559-1561', "Southeastern Archaeology Vol. 8, No. 1" (1989)

· Ian Heath, "Armies of the Sixteenth Century: The armies of the Aztec and Inca Empires, other native peoples of the Americas, and the Conquistadores 1450-1608" (1999)

· John Pohl, "The Conquistador 1492-1550" (2001)

· Justyna Olko, "Insignia of Rank in the Nahua World" (2014)

· Camilla Townsend, "Fifth Sun: A New History of the Aztecs" (2019)

· 글림자, “유럽 복식 문화와 역사 1” (2019)