Loneliness Research

Loneliness

Resources

· John Cacioppo - Loneliness: Human Nature and the Need for Social Connection

Notes

Results

Approximately 20% of the children reported loneliness at each time point, 5% always felt lonely, and 25% wished they had more friends. Conduct and emotional problems, and hyperactivity were independently associated with loneliness in the multiple-regression analysis. The strength of these associations remained at similar levels over the 24-year study period. Living in a nonnuclear family, parents with a lower level of vocational education, and negative life events among the girls in the study were all associated with loneliness.

Conclusions

Loneliness was a common phenomenon in childhood, and no notable changes were found during the 24-year study period. Psychiatric symptoms were strongly associated with loneliness. It is important to pay attention to children's loneliness and make it an integral part of school health care. Further epidemiological research is needed.

Is there an operational definition of loneliness?

Loneliness is an emotionally unpleasant state during which a person’s desired interpersonal relationships do not match their actual relationships.18 Thus, loneliness is characterized by unmet expectations regarding social and intimate needs. Loneliness can be subtyped into various categories: a) emotional loneliness is defined by the lack of intimate relationships; and b) social isolation entails the lack of a social network that is stable.11, 19, 39 Loneliness may be further subdivided based on its causes.28, 36 Internal loneliness is associated with perceived loneliness and may arise due to personality factors, mental distress, personality, low self-esteem or self-worth, ineffective coping strategies, and negative emotions such as worthlessness and guilt. Reasons for situational loneliness include environmental factors (e.g., interpersonal issues and unpleasant experiences, the dispensary between desired and current number of social contacts, population migration, and disasters or accidents). Finally, developmental loneliness results from a misbalance between the need for intimacy or relatedness and the need for individualism. Specific factors leading to developmental loneliness include developmental deficits, social marginalization, significant separation(s), living environment, personal inadequacies, and physical and/or psychological disabilities.28, 36 Overall, there is agreement that loneliness arises due to perceived deficiencies in interpersonal or social relationships.39 Further, loneliness and social isolation are not a singular construct, as it is the perception of loneliness that matters, not physical or social isolation.39Finally, it is clear in the literature that loneliness is a subjective, nevertheless, distressing experience.39

Why is loneliness such a concern in modern N.A? Is there need for concern?

Due to the rise of technology, digital communication is increasingly relied upon to initiate and maintain relationships, which is concerning as social Internet use and loneliness have a bidirectional relationship.29 When used properly, social media use may be advantageous for relationships; however, individuals who use media-based communication to replace in-person may be at risk for greater loneliness. This increased use of technology-based communication can also be observed in the workplace, as many employers are offering employees the opportunity to work remotely; however, remote work may result in greater perceived isolation and loneliness.1 This sense of loneliness may also be experienced by non-remote employees with high stress and fast-paced jobs.1 This overreliance on technology-based recourses over social resources is concerning given the negative psychological and physical well-being outcomes associated with increased loneliness discussed below.

What in our culture has contributed to the loneliness problem?

North America demonstrates a preference of individualistic values over collective values, emphasizing competitiveness, individual over team achievement, impersonal relationships, and attaining profit and power.34In comparison to collectivist cultures, individualistic cultures are distinguished by increased rates of divorce and single-person homes, as well as decreased family sizes and social networks.34 Furthermore, loneliness may be intensified for people unable to meet various cultural standards or expectations relating to interpersonal relationships (e.g., ability to find a spouse or significant other).34  Additionally, technological advances have shaped how people now communicate with one another (i.e., preference for online over in-person interaction).34 This is problematic, as increased Internet use is related to a decline and family communication, a decreased social network, and an increase in loneliness and depression.20

What impacts does loneliness have on people’s overall wellbeing?

A review by Heinrich and Gullone revealed that loneliness predicted psychosocial difficulties (e.g., decreased social competence and self-esteem), decreased mental health (e.g., depression, anxiety, suicidality), and physical health problems (e.g., diminished cardiovascular and immune system functioning, as well as sleep impairment).18 Specifically, loneliness may lead to cancer, obesity, poor hearing, aging, reduced health overall, and is associated with adverse life experiences (e.g., child abuse).28

Does loneliness increase the likelihood of mental health problems?

Overall, loneliness is associated with diminished well-being.36 Specifically, loneliness may lead to alcohol abuse, personality disorders, depression, anxiety, suicidality, bulimia, and Alzheimer disease.18, 28, 36, 39 Additionally, while bereavement is not a psychiatric condition, many individuals suffering from grief may also experience greater loneliness.39

Loneliness and Solitude

Loneliness is a negative experience characterized by dissatisfaction with both aloneness and perceived quality of social interactions; conversely, solitude is a positive experience characterized by an intrinsic desire for voluntary aloneness allowing for greater a greater sense of connection to oneself and greater self-reflection.16, 17 While loneliness has been identified as a mental health concern,31solitude may be sought-out for the purpose of restoration or rejuvenation.22 Notably, loneliness has been linked to an external locus of control,19 in other words, lonely individuals are more likely to have a diminished sense of agency, believing that life-events arise due to factors outside of their control; specifically, due to random chance, other people’s actions, or environmental factors. In contrast, researchers have proposed that solitude leads to increased sense of agency and empowerment; therefore, it is possible that individuals who seek-out solitude are more likely to have an internal locus of control, believing that life-events are influenced by personal actions and abilities.

Myth: Loneliness mostly just impacts old people

Contrary to widespread belief, loneliness is less prevalent during old age and is more common during early developmental periods; specifically, during adolescent and young adulthood.18, 39 Notably, a national report revealed that individuals between the ages of 18 and 22 are at the higest risk of experiencing loneliness.30 Though, even young children may experience loneliness. For example, one study assessing the prevalence of loneliness during early childhood found that 12% of kindergarteners and children in first grade reported feelings of loneliness at school.7 However, it is important to note that loneliness impacts a large percentage of the population;39 for example, one report revealed that 50% of Americans experience either transient or chronic loneliness.3- Risk factors associated with loneliness include being a female and/or being unmarried; notably, older unmarried men may experience greater loneliness than unmarried women who are older.39

Myth: Loneliness will make people crazy.

Research has found that patients suffering from psychosis are at six times the risk of facing loneliness in comparison to individuals without a psychotic disorder.27 Chau and colleagues conducted a meta-analysis that revealed that loneliness has a medium link to positive psychotic symptoms;8 specifically, results revealed a robust relationship between paranoia and loneliness. In a second meta-analysis, loneliness was shown to have a medium correlation with negative psychotic symptoms.8 However, it should be noted that evidence suggests that the relationship between paranoia and loneliness is mediated by negative interpersonal schemas.21

Myth: Loneliness and social anxiety are the same thing.

Research has tested whether loneliness and social anxiety are a singular trait: Results revealed that loneliness and social anxiety are distinct constructs that are both related to interpersonal difficulties.15Like social anxiety, loneliness is maintained by self-protective, avoidance behaviour.15While social anxiety and loneliness are not the same, individuals with social anxiety disorder are at greater risk of experiencing loneliness.6, 25

Is technology a solution to loneliness? Do online friendships replace in-person friendships?

While technology may enable social interaction, it may also serve as a barrier depending on its use.24, 29 Specifically, technology reduces loneliness when used to initiate communication, friendship, and offline relationships.14, 24 In one study, social avoidance and loneliness predicted increased time spent on Facebook and was inversely associated with the number of intimate Facebook friends.23 These findings indicate that people who experience greater levels of loneliness and demonstrate increased avoidance of social situations may use Facebook as an outlet, possibly to compensate for a lack of in-person relationship or for reduced interpersonal skills.23, 37 These findings may be explained by the social competence hypothesis, which proposes that socially anxious or introverted individuals demonstrate a greater reliance on the Internet, due to a struggle to develop in-person relationships.37 While technology may be a solution to loneliness when used wisely, online interpersonal relationships are not sufficient in replacing in-person friendships.

How can we reduce our loneliness?

Broadly speaking there are four primary interventions for loneliness including, a) the development of social skills, b) targeting maladaptive cognitions, c) providing social support, and d) providing opportunities for group interaction.26, 28 It is important that interventions are individualized, taking people’s available resources and unique circumstances into consideration.24 In addition to planned interventions, loneliness may be mitigated through use of strategies, including distraction (e.g., keeping busy), being emotionally vulnerable, participation in activities, reinforcing quality relationships, helping others, pharmacological treatment for ailments, and keeping in contact with valued people.36

What reasons are there to have hope that your loneliness can change? (incremental cultivation)

Changing our mindsets may allow us to change our perceived loneliness. Individuals may either hold and fixed or a growth mindset of social interaction.35 People with a fixed mindset of social interaction believe that their relationships are unchangeable, while individuals with a growth mindset believe their social interactions and interpersonal competence can change and improve through effort.35 Research has shown that fixed mindset of friendship and social competence predicts greater levels of loneliness.35 Luckily, we can adopt more adaptive mindsets of interpersonal relationships by focusing more so on learning processes and by concentrating on ways to increase social competence.35 Common interventions to induce a growth mindset include exposing oneself to arguments in favour of such a mindset.35

References

1. Allen, P. (2018). The growing concern of loneliness in the workplace. OOHNA, 38(2), 6-8.

a. This was a very weird journal article I found on the MacEwan database. I was going to replace it with a better source but ran out of time. It discussed the concern of loneliness in the workplace.

2. Matta, V. & Bortolotti, L. (2020). Solitude as a positive experience: empowerment and agency. Metodo. International Studies in Phenomenology, 8(2), 119-147. DOI: 10.19079/metodo.8.2.119

3. Baumeister, R.F., & Leary, M.R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation, Psychological Bulletin, 117 (3), 497-529. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497

4. Cacioppo, John T. (2018). Loneliness in the Modern Age: An Evolutionary Theory of Loneliness. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1-71. doi: 10.1016/bs.aesp.2018.03.003

5. Cacioppo. J.T. (2018). The growing problem of loneliness. The Lancet, 391, 426. https://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140-6736(18)30142-9.pdf

6. Cacioppo, S., Grippo, A. J., London, S., Goossens, L., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2015). Loneliness: Clinical import and interventions. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 238-249.

a. Review article re. efficacy of loneliness interventions/treatments

7. Cassidy, J., & Asher, S. R. (1992). Loneliness and peer relations in young children. Child Development, 63(2), 350-365.

a. N = 440 kindergarteners & first graders. Results: 12% of children experienced loneliness in school; loneliness scores were significantly associated with acceptance scores, r(44) = -.23, p < .001

8. Chau, A. K., Zhu, C., & So, S. H. W. (2019). Loneliness and the psychosis continuum: a meta-analysis on positive psychotic experiences and a meta-analysis on negative psychotic experiences. International Review of Psychiatry, 31(5-6), 471-490.

a. 30 studies in meta-analysis no.1; 15 studies in meta-analysis no.2

b. Meta-analysis 1: Loneliness was linked with positive psychotic symptoms (r = 0.302, p < 0.001); Loneliness was associate with paranoia (r = 0.448, p < 0.001).

c. Meta-analysis 2: loneliness and negative psychotic symptoms had a med. link (r = 0.347, p < 0.001)

9. Coppola, F. (2019). The brain in solitude: an (other) eighth amendment challenge to solitary confinement. Hournal of Law and the Biosciences, 6(1), 184-225. DOI: 10.1093/jlb/lsz014

10. Cox, D.A. (2021). The state of American friendship: Change, challenges, and loss. Findings from the May 2021 American Perspectives Survey. Survey Center on American Life. https://www.americansurveycenter.org/research/the-state-of-american-friendship-change-challenges-and-loss/

11. Dahlberg, L., & McKee, K. J. (2014). Correlates of social and emotional loneliness in older people: Evidence from an English community study. Aging & Mental Health, 18(4), 504-514.

a. This article depicts the analyses necessary to construct models for subcategories of loneliness. 1255 older individuals were recruited to participate. Results indicated 19.36% of shared variance for social and emotional loneliness. Variables that emerged as a predictor of social loneliness that was non-overlapping with emotional loneliness included decreased levels of perceived community integration, being male, decreased family and friend contact, reduced activity, and being a recipient of community care. Variables that emerged as a predictor of emotional loneliness that was non-overlapping with social loneliness included high activity restriction and being a non-recipient of informal care. For significant predictors of social loneliness: R = 0.50, R2 = 0.25, F(18, 979) = 18.17, p < 0.001). For significant predictors of emotional loneliness: R = 0.55, R2 = 0.30, F (18, 973)=23.00, p < 0.001).

12. DeMarco, K.D. (2012). Disabled By Solitude: The Convention On The Rights Of Persons With Disabilities And Its Impact On The Use Of Supermax Solitary Confinement. University of Miami Law, 66(2). Retrieved from //repository.law.miami.edu/umlr/vol66/iss2/8

13. Ellison, N.B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook ‘‘friends:’’ social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12, 1143-1168, Retrieved https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x

14. Erickson, J., & Johnson, G. M. (2011). Internet use and psychological wellness during late adulthood. Canadian Journal on Aging/la Revue canadienne du vieillissement, 30(2), 197-209.

a. N = 122 > 60 years of age; Results: Internet use for communication purposes was inversely associated with loneliness, r(121) = -.19, p<.05

15. Fung, K., Paterson, D., & Alden, L. E. (2017). Are social anxiety and loneliness best conceptualized as a unitary trait?. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 36(4), 335-345.

a. N = 493; Factor and confirmatory analysis on a one-factor model (social anxiety-depression-loneliness), a two-factor model (depression and social-anxiety-loneliness) and a model with three factors (social anxiety, depression, and loneliness). Results: these three constructs distinct, though related.

b. The model with three factors – SB X2 (1127) = 2178.637, p < .001, SRMR = .048, RMSEA = .044, 90% CI [.041, .046], CFit = 1.000, TLI = .890, CFI = .899 – was found to provide the best fit (two-factor model: SB X2 (1129) = 3212.357, p < .001, SRMR = .086, RMSEA = .061, 90% CI [.059, .063], CFit < .001, TLI = .782, CFI = .799, TS(2) = 163.215, p < .001; the one factor model: SB c2 (1130) = 4474.870, p < .001, SRMR = .090, RMSEA = .077, 90% CI [.075, .080], CFit < .001, TLI = .650, CFI = .677, TS(1) = 593.286, p < .001)

16. Galanaki, E. (2004). Are children able to distinguish among the concepts of aloneness, loneliness, and solitude? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28(5), 435–443.

17. Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2010). Loneliness matters: A theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 40(2), 218–227.

18. Heinrich, L. M., & Gullone, E. (2006). The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(6), 695-718.

a. This article reviewed loneliness in relation to social deficits, elaborating on social relationships their function, and related theories, concerns surrounding loneliness its features, factors antecedent to or maintaining loneliness, and relevant considerations and directions for future research.

19. Hojat, M. (1982). Loneliness as a function of selected personality variables. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38(1), 137-141.

20. Kraut, Rv Patterson, M., Lundmark, B., Kiesler, S., Mukopadhyay, T., & Scherlis, W. (1998). Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well-being? American Psychologist, 53,1017-1031.

a. N = 169; Longitudinal study; Results: Increased use of the Internet was correlated inversely with family communication (p < 0.5) and size of social network (local circle, p <.05; distant social circle, p <.07); increased loneliness was correlated with depression (p < .07) and loneliness (B = -.16, p < .02)

21. Lamster, F., Lincoln, T. M., Nittel, C. M., Rief, W., & Mehl, S. (2017). The lonely road to paranoia. A path-analytic investigation of loneliness and paranoia. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 74, 35-43.

a. Cross-sectional study; N = 65 participants w/ schizophrenia; Negative schemata of others emerged as a significant mediating variable between paranoia and loneliness (β = .314, p = .002). Loneliness was significantly correlated with a perceived lack of social support (β = −.478, p = .003).

22. Lay, J. C., Pauly, T., Graf, P., Biesanz, J. C., & Hoppmann, C. A. (2019). By myself and liking it? Predictors of distinct types of solitude experiences in daily life. Journal of Personality, 87(3), 633–647.

23. Lemieux, R., Lajoie, S., & Trainor, N. E. (2013). Affinity-seeking, social loneliness, and social avoidance among Facebook users. Psychological reports, 112(2), 545-552.

a. N=313 post-secondary students; Results: multiple regression used to examine whether social avoidance and isolation, as well as affinity-seeking predicted time spent using Facebook. The model explained 16% of variance (95%CI = -15.39, 19.72; R = .40, p=.001). Social loneliness emerged as the only significant predict of time spent on Facebook (B = 11.05, p = .001)

24. Lim, M. H., Eres, R., & Vasan, S. (2020). Understanding loneliness in the twenty-first century: an update on correlates, risk factors, and potential solutions. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 55(7), 793-810.

a. This article reviewed loneliness and associated risk factors/correlates. Results: development of a conceptual model of loneliness related to risk factors/correlates and proposed solutions.

25. Lim, M. H., Rodebaugh, T. L., Zyphur, M. J., & Gleeson, J. F. (2016). Loneliness over time: The crucial role of social anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125(5), 620.

a. N = 1010; Cross-lagged structural equation model - loneliness predicted future social anxiety, depression, and paranoia. Earlier social anxiety emerged as the only significant predictor of future loneliness.

26. Masi, C. M., Chen, H. Y., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2011). A meta-analysis of interventions to reduce loneliness. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(3), 219-266.

a. This meta-analysis was conducted to assess loneliness intervention approaches in a quantitative way. Results: for randomized comparison studies, the most effective interventions targeted maladaptive social cognitions. Aligning with previous research, the four primary interventions used to address loneliness were successful regardless of type of study design; however, randomized comparison studies had lower mean effect sizes in comparison to non-randomized comparison studies, single-group, and pre/post studies social cognitive intervention: mean effect size = –0.598, p = .001

b. social support intervention: mean effect size = –0.162, p = .003

c. social skills intervention: mean effect size = 0.017, p = .90

d. increased social interaction opportunities: mean effect size = –0.062, p = .67

27. Meltzer, H., Bebbington, P., Dennis, M. S., Jenkins, R., McManus, S., & Brugha, T. S. (2013). Feelings of loneliness among adults with mental disorder. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48(1), 5-13.

a. Random probability sample design, N = 7,461 adults; cross-sectional survey

b. Results: Loneliness was correlated with psychosis (OR = 5.80, 95% CI 2.62-12.84, p <.001)

28. Mushtaq, R., Shoib, S., Shah, T., & Mushtaq, S. (2014). Relationship between loneliness, psychiatric disorders and physical health? A review on the psychological aspects of loneliness. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research: JCDR, 8(9), WE01.

a. This article reviewed psychiatric and physical disorders associated with loneliness, briefly outlining four types of broad interventions and risk factors.

29. Nowland, R., Necka, E. A., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2018). Loneliness and social internet use: pathways to reconnection in a digital world?. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(1), 70-87.

a. This article proposed a theoretical model of loneliness and its relationship with social Internet use. Social internet use was conducive to interpersonal relationships dependent on its use. If used poorly, social media was associated with increased loneliness.

30. O’Day, E. B., & Heimberg, R. G. (2021). Social media use, social anxiety, and loneliness: A systematic review. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 3, 100070.

a. This systematic review (of 52 articles that met inclusion criteria) examined social anxiety and loneliness within the context of social media use. Results: social anxiety and loneliness was associated with maladaptive online engagement and using social media to gain social support

31. Qualter, P., Vanhalst, J., Harris, R., Van Roekel, E., Lodder, G., Bangee, M., Maes, M., & Verhagen, M. (2015). Loneliness across the life span. Perspectives on Psychological Science,10(2), 250–264.

32. Roser, M. & Ortiz-Ospina, E. (2013). Global Extreme Poverty. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/extreme-poverty#citation

33. Rietdijk, J., Van Os, J., Graaf, R. D., Delespaul, P., & Gaag, M. V. D. (2009). Are social phobia and paranoia related, and which comes first?. Psychosis, 1(1), 29-38.

a. N = 7076; Results: lifetime social anxiety and phobia symptoms were associated (OR=3.08; 95% CI=2.49–3.82; p <.001)

34. Rokach, A. (2018). The effect of gender and culture on loneliness: A mini review. Emerging Science Journal, 2(2), 59-64.

a. This article reviewed the relationship between loneliness and both culture (individualistic v. collectivistic) and gender.

35. Taniguchi, E. (2018). Loneliness and inducing incremental theories of social interactions to produce adaptive change. Personal Relationships, 25(3), 394-410.

a. N = 388; Results: lonely people were more likely to hold a fixed view of friendship and social competence. An experimental induction of a growth mindset of social competence decreased participants’ apprehension regarding communication and resulted in an increase of social engagement, despite loneliness levels.

36. Tiwari, S. C. (2013). Loneliness: A disease?. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(4), 320-323.

a. This article is a guest editorial surveying loneliness; specifically, its prevalence, correlates, subtypes, and impact on well-being.

b. Note: I included it because I thought the subtypes were interesting and the subtypes were cited by many researchers/reputable journals (e.g., science direct)

37. Valkenburg, P. M., Schouten, A. P., & Peter, J. (2005). Adolescents’ identity experiments on the Internet. New media & society, 7(3), 383-402.

a. N = 600; Age, 9-18; 50% of participants conducted Internet-based identity experiments for the purpose of self-exploration, social competence, or social facilitation

b. Results: Introverts were more likely to engage in social competence-related identity experiments in comparison to extroverts (b = .20, p<.01); in comparison to boys, girls engaged more in social competence-related identity experiments (b= .24, p<.1)

38. Wang, H, Tian, X., Wang, X., & Wang, Y. (2021). Evolution and emerging trends in depression research from 2004 to 2019: A literature visualization analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 1903. DOI=10.3389/fpsyt.2021.705749.

39. West, D. A., Kellner, R., & Moore-West, M. (1986). The effects of loneliness: a review of the literature. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 27(4), 351-363.

This article reviewed the prevalence and demographics of loneliness, as well as its link to decreased physical and psychiatric well-being. Younger individuals, women, and older unmarried men are at a greater risk of experiencing loneliness.